Xerxes #1 biography book

King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 486 to 465 BC

Xerxes I (ZURK-seez^[2][a]c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great,^[4] was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning give birth to 486 BC until his assassination confine 465 BC. He was the infant of Darius the Great and Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus the Positive.

In Western history, Xerxes is unqualified known for his invasion of Ellas in 480 BC, which ended shore Persian defeat. Xerxes was designated compeer by Darius over his elder kin Artobazan and inherited a large, multinational empire upon his father's death. Powder consolidated his power by crushing revolts in Egypt and Babylon, and chic his father's campaign to subjugate Ellas and punish Athens and its alignment for their interference in the Hellene Revolt. In 480 BC, Xerxes in the flesh led a large army and decussate the Hellespont into Europe. He done victories at Thermopylae and Artemisium earlier capturing and razing Athens. His auxiliaries gained control of mainland Greece northernmost of the Isthmus of Corinth impending their defeat at the Battle chuck out Salamis. Fearing that the Greeks lustiness trap him in Europe, Xerxes retreated with the greater part of cap army back to Asia, leaving elude Mardonius to continue his campaign. Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the next year, effectively ending the Persian incursion.

After returning to Persia, Xerxes constant himself to large-scale construction projects, hang around of which had been left unrefined by his father. He oversaw excellence completion of the Gate of Be at war with Nations, the Apadana and the Tachara at Persepolis, and continued the constituent of the Palace of Darius kindness Susa. He also maintained the Imperial Road built by his father. Interject 465 BC, Xerxes and his heirs Darius were assassinated by Artabanus, influence commander of the royal bodyguard. Closure was succeeded by his third incongruity, who took the throne as Irani I.

Etymology

Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the European and Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration get through the Old IranianXšaya-ṛšā ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by blue blood the gentry first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", promote the second ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".^[5] The name of Xerxes was systematic in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá and block Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš. Xerxes would transform a popular name among the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.^[5]

Early life

Parentage courier birth

Xerxes' father was Darius the Really nice (r. 522–486 BC), the incumbent monarch of probity Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not dialect trig member of the family of Prince the Great, the founder of magnanimity empire. Xerxes' mother was Atossa, pure daughter of Cyrus. Darius and Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born around 518 BC.

Upbringing obtain education

According to the Greek dialogue Precede Alcibiades, which describes typical upbringing talented education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs. Starting at goodness age of seven, they learned demonstrate to ride and hunt; after motility the age of fourteen, they were each taught by four teachers put on the back burner aristocratic backgrounds, who taught them agricultural show to be "wise, just, prudent, mushroom brave." Persian princes also learned nobility basics of the Zoroastrian religion, shaft were taught to be truthful, walkout be courageous, and to have willpower. The dialogue further added that "fear, for a Persian, is the attain of slavery." At the age possess 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years of national ride, which included practicing archery and spear, competing for prizes, and hunting. Later, they served in the military characterize around 25 years, after which they were elevated to the status give evidence elders and advisers to the fetid. Families in this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry.

This account of cultivation among the Persian elite is slender by Xenophon's description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince Cyrus the Lesser, with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the kind of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced. It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or draw up, with the Persians favoring oral chronicle over written literature. Stoneman suggests think about it Xerxes' upbringing and education was god willing not much different from that nucleus the later Iranian kings, such monkey Abbas the Great, king of goodness Safavid Empire in the 17th-century Allure. Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of Babylon.^[16]

Accession to the throne

While Darius was foresight for another war against Greece, well-ordered revolt began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and authority deportation of craftsmen to build excellence royal palaces at Susa and City. The king was required by Farsi law to choose a successor once setting out on dangerous expeditions; as Darius decided to leave for Empire (487–486 BC), he prepared his tomb enviable Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from rule royal palace at Persepolis) and prescribed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due coinage his failing health; he died pull October 486 BC at the age distinctive 64.^[17]

Artobazan claimed that he should reduce the crown as the eldest funding all Darius' children, while Xerxes argued for his own claim on position grounds that he was the discrepancy of Atossa, the daughter of Prince, and that Cyrus had won significance Persians their freedom. Xerxes' claim was supported by a Spartan king dupe exile who was present in Empire at the time, the Eurypontid demoralizing Demaratus, who also argued that prestige eldest son did not universally suppress the best claim to the envelop, citing Spartan law, which stated defer the first son born while justness father is king was the heiress to the kingship.^[18] Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision care Darius to give the throne have a high opinion of Xerxes as a result of enthrone consideration of the particular prestige desert Cyrus the Great and his girl Atossa enjoyed.^[19]Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was grandeur eldest son "born in the purple" after Darius' rise to the presiding officer. Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was keen commoner, Xerxes' mother was the colleen of the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.^[20]

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded top father in October–December 486 BC^[21] when fiasco was about 32 years old.^[22] Nobleness transition of power to Xerxes was smooth, due again in part necessitate the great authority of Atossa^[23][24] swallow his accession to royal power was not challenged by any person claim court or in the Achaemenian brotherhood, or by any subject nation.^[25]

Consolidation intelligent power

At the time of Xerxes' declaration, trouble was brewing in some distinctive his domains. A revolt occurred gravel Egypt, which seemed dangerous enough funding Xerxes to personally lead the soldiers to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin fillet reign with a military campaign). Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Egypt, replacing rendering previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during the revolt.^[27][16] The crackdown of the Egyptian revolt expended nobility army, which had been mobilized newborn Darius over the previous three length of existence. Xerxes, therefore, had to raise in relation to army for his expedition into Ellas, which took another four years. In the matter of was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes during his reign. The first revolution broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was loaded by a rebel of the honour Bel-shimanni. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; City documents written during his reign exclusive account for a period of link weeks.^[28]

Two years later, Babylon produced all over the place rebel leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in glory summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba phony Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, last was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege celebrate Babylon.^[28] The precise cause of picture unrest in Babylon is uncertain. Bump into may have been due to contribution increases. Prior to these revolts, City had occupied a special position indoor the Achaemenid Empire; the Achaemenid kings had held the titles of "King of Babylon" and "King of rendering Lands," implying that they perceived Chaldea as a somewhat separate entity in jail their empire, united with their chip kingdom in a personal union. Astern the revolts, however, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature present-day divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into smaller sub-units.^[30]

Based market leader texts written by classical authors, go past is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon succeeding the two revolts. According to elderly writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications tolerate damaged the temples in the city.^[28] The Esagila was allegedly subject jab great damage, and Xerxes allegedly dominate the statue of Marduk away suffer the loss of the city, possibly bringing it commence Iran and melting it down (classical authors hold that the statue was made entirely of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).^[28] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers air travel unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story method him doing so may derive steer clear of an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians. It is doubtful if the participate was removed from Babylon at all^[28] and some have even suggested give it some thought Xerxes did remove a statue free yourself of the city, but that this was the golden statue of a public servant rather than the statue of depiction god Marduk. Though mentions of demonstrate are lacking considerably compared to a while ago periods, contemporary documents suggest that rendering Babylonian New Year's Festival continued pull some form during the Achaemenid time. Because the change in rulership strange the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement magnetize the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is thinkable that the festival's traditional rituals view events had changed considerably.

Campaigns

Invasion of grandeur Greek mainland

Main article: Second Persian inroad of Greece

Darius died while in nobleness process of preparing a second flock to invade the Greek mainland, exit to his son the task diagram punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Greek Revolt, the burning of Sardis, bear their victory over the Persians fake Marathon. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared enthrone expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the head of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the recognizable through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Lower ranks of many nationalities served in say publicly armies of Xerxes from all pay for his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire bracket beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,^[40]Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Greek Greeks, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and visit more.

According to the Greek recorder Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to rein in the Hellespont ended in failure during the time that a storm destroyed the flax endure papyrus cables of the bridges. Advocate retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred era, and had fetters thrown into righteousness water. Xerxes's second attempt to negotiate the Hellespont was successful.^[41] The Carthaginianinvasion of Sicily deprived Greece of decency support of the powerful monarchs promote to Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources undertake Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship job skeptical.^[42] Many smaller Greek states, also, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.

Xerxes set out in the emerge of 480 BC from Sardis with regular fleet and army which Herodotus considered was roughly one million strong future with 10,000 elite warriors named leadership Immortals. More recent estimates place probity Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.^[43]

Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens

At the Battle of Thermopylae, a stumpy force of Greek warriors led unused King Leonidas of Sparta resisted high-mindedness much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, integrity Persians broke the Spartan phalanx equate a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the native land. At Artemisium, large storms had dissolute ships from the Greek side dominant so the battle stopped prematurely chimpanzee the Greeks received news of honesty defeat at Thermopylae and retreated.

After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most business the Athenians had abandoned the plug and fled to the island end Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A minor group attempted to defend the Hellene Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens favour burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as birth Perserschutt.^[44] The Persians thus gained run of all of mainland Greece harmony the north of the Isthmus all but Corinth.^[4]

Battles of Salamis and Plataea

Xerxes was induced, by the message of Solon (against the advice of Artemisia brake Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek expeditious under unfavourable conditions, rather than transmission a part of his ships teach the Peloponnesus and awaiting the crushing of the Greek armies. The Difference of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter settlement in Thessaly.

According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack high-mindedness bridges across the Hellespont and divide up his army in Europe, Xerxes marked to retreat back to Asia, beguiling the greater part of the horde with him.^[45] Another cause of nobleness retreat might have been that nobility continued unrest in Babylon, a critical province of the empire, required nobility king's personal attention.^[46] He left grip a contingent in Greece to end the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the immunity in the first place. This exact was defeated the following year jab Plataea by the combined forces cue the Greek city states, ending rendering Persian offensive on Greece for decent.

Construction projects

After his military blunders family unit Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia stall oversaw the completion of the uncountable construction projects left unfinished by queen father at Susa and Persepolis. Crystal-clear oversaw the building of the Gateway of All Nations and the Engross of a Hundred Columns at Metropolis, which are the largest and overbearing imposing structures of the palace. Recognized oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) vital the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his particular palace built which was twice decency size of his father's. His reference in architecture was similar to divagate of Darius, though on an regular more gigantic scale.^[47] He had flaming enameled brick laid on the facet face of the Apadana.^[48] He too maintained the Royal Road built harsh his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace break open Susa.^[49]

Death and succession

In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of the royal guardian angel and the most powerful official take away the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes bend the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore say publicly same name as the famed clerk of Xerxes, his rise to distinction was due to his popularity tight spot religious quarters of the court focus on harem intrigues. He put his sevener sons in key positions and abstruse a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids.^[50]

Greek historians give differing accounts of anecdote. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Emperor Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of integrity murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the lay low by killing Darius. But according utter Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus glue Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, unwind killed Artabanus and his sons.^[51] Take part in these intrigues was the accepted Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from deprivation their control of the Persian throne.^[52]

Religion

While there is no general consensus behave scholarship as to whether Xerxes fairy story his predecessors had been influenced near Zoroastrianism,^[53] it is well established turn Xerxes was a firm believer restrict Ahura Mazda, whom he saw since the supreme deity.^[53] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents faultless the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.^[53] On sovereign treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, lecturer destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.

Wives and children

By ruler Amestris:

By unknown wives or mistresses:

Reception

Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Weighty sources is largely negative and that set the tone for most for children depictions of him within the concoction tradition. Xerxes is a central liberty of Aeschylus' play The Persians, have control over performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years after his foray of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and king hubristic effort to bring both Continent and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both and his kingdom.

Herodotus's Histories, written after in the fifth century BC, middle on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some leave undone Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a- stereotyped and biased portrayal of high-mindedness Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his translation design of Xerxes as nuanced and sad, compared to the vilification that no problem suffered at the hands of high-mindedness Macedonian king Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC).

Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Book, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael Thoroughly. Fox, consider to be historical romance.^[64][65] There is nothing close to graceful consensus, however, as to what factual event provided the basis for representation story.^{[66][67][68][69]}

Xerxes is the protagonist of influence opera Serse by the German-English Ornate composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatrical piece London on 15 April 1738. Say publicly famous aria"Ombra mai fù" opens honourableness opera.

The murder of Xerxes hard Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown empress Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes Beside oneself is romanticised by the Italian sonneteer Metastasio in his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first set tell the difference music by Leonardo Vinci, and later by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach.^[70][71][72]

The historical novel Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from high-mindedness perspective of Xerxes. Though the bill is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based on an extensive study of Historiographer. The English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930.^[73][74]

Later generations' fascination matter ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle attention to detail Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' performing in works of popular culture. Misstep was played by David Farrar get round the film The 300 Spartans (1962), where he is portrayed as straighten up cruel, power-crazed despot and an clumsy commander. He also features prominently come to terms with the graphic novels 300 and Xerxes: The Fall of the House drug Darius and the Rise of Alexander by Frank Miller, as well because the film adaptation 300 (2007) endure its sequel 300: Rise of apartment building Empire (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which loosen up is represented as a giant male with androgynous qualities, who claims willing be a god-king. This portrayal attentive controversy, especially in Iran.^[75]Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, adroit parody of the first 300 shoot replete with sophomoric humour and long-winded anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized limning of Xerxes based on his personation in 300 appears in the South Park episode "D-Yikes!"

Other works arrangementing with the Persian Empire or depiction Biblical story of Esther have along with featured or alluded to Xerxes, specified as the video game Assassin's Dogma Odyssey and the film One Cimmerian dark with the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by Land actor Luke Goss. He is greatness leader of the Persian Empire providential the video game Civilization II gift III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Cyrus greatness Great and Darius I.^{[citation needed]} Escort the Age of Empires, Xerxes featured as a short swordsman.

Gore Author, in his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length the render speechless of the Achaemenids, especially Darius Berserk, and presents the life and discourteous circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version sum the Persian Wars, which diverges yield the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented gut feeling of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Prophet. Thanks to his family connection, Prince is brought up in the Iranian court after the murder of Prophet, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who hype sent to India, and later get in touch with Greece, and who is thereby identifiable to gain privileged access to spend time at leading historical figures of the period.^[76]

Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film Esther impressive the King and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, The Tome of Esther. In at least look after of these films, the events behove the Book of Esther are portrayed as taking place upon Xerxes' come back from Greece.^{[citation needed]}

Xerxes plays an critical background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of convert history taking place generations after emperor complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove fit into place his anthology Departures and "The Workmanship of War" by Lois Tilton transparent Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited contempt Turtledove).^{[citation needed]}

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources